1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to compositions comprising an agent that binds a human Notch receptor and methods of using the compositions for characterizing, diagnosing, and treating cancer and other diseases. In particular, the present invention provides antibodies that specifically bind to a non-ligand binding membrane proximal region of the extracellular domain of a human Notch1 receptor and inhibit tumor growth. The present invention further provides methods of treating cancer, the methods comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of an antibody that specifically binds to a non-ligand binding membrane proximal region of the extracellular domain of a human Notch1 receptor protein and inhibits tumor growth.
2. Background
Cancer is one of the leading causes of death in the developed world, resulting in over 500,000 deaths per year in the United States alone. Over one million people are diagnosed with cancer in the U.S. each year, and overall it is estimated that more than 1 in 3 people will develop some form of cancer during their lifetime. Though there are more than 200 different types of cancer, four of them—breast, lung, colorectal, and prostate—account for over half of all new cases (Jemal et al., 2003, Cancer J. Clin. 53:5-26).
Cancer arises from dysregulation of the mechanisms that control normal tissue development and maintenance, and increasingly stem cells are thought to play a central role (Beachy et al., 2004, Nature 432:324). During normal animal development, cells of most or all tissues are derived from normal precursors, called stem cells (Morrison et al., 1997, Cell 88:287-98; Morrison et al., 1997, Curr. Opin. Immunol. 9:216-21; Morrison et al., 1995, Annu. Rev. Cell. Dev. Biol. 11:35-71). Stem cells are cells that: (1) have extensive proliferative capacity; 2) are capable of asymmetric cell division to generate one or more kinds of progeny with reduced proliferative and/or developmental potential; and (3) are capable of symmetric cell divisions for self-renewal or self-maintenance. The best-known example of adult cell renewal by the differentiation of stem cells is the hematopoietic system where developmentally immature precursors (hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells) respond to molecular signals to form the varied blood and lymphoid cell types. Other cells, including cells of the gut, breast ductal system, and skin are constantly replenished from a small population of stem cells in each tissue, and recent studies suggest that most other adult tissues also harbor stem cells, including the brain.
Solid tumors are composed of heterogeneous cell populations. For example, breast cancers are a mixture of cancer cells and normal cells, including mesenchymal (stromal) cells, inflammatory cells, and endothelial cells. Classic models of cancer hold that phenotypically distinct cancer cell populations all have the capacity to proliferate and give rise to a new tumor. In the classical model, tumor cell heterogeneity results from environmental factors as well as ongoing mutations within cancer cells resulting in a diverse population of tumorigenic cells. This model rests on the idea that all populations of tumor cells would have some degree of tumorigenic potential. (Pandis et al., 1998, Genes, Chromosomes & Cancer 12:122-129; Kuukasjrvi et al., 1997, Cancer Res. 57:1597-1604; Bonsing et al., 1993, Cancer 71:382-391; Bonsing et al., 2000, Genes Chromosomes & Cancer 82: 173-183; Beerman H et al., 1991, Cytometry 12:147-54; Aubele M & Werner M, 1999, Analyt. Cell. Path. 19:53; Shen L et al., 2000, Cancer Res. 60:3884).
An alternative model for the observed solid tumor cell heterogeneity is that solid tumors result from a “solid tumor stem cell” (or “cancer stem cell” from a solid tumor) that subsequently undergoes chaotic development through both symmetric and asymmetric rounds of cell divisions. In this stem cell model, solid tumors contain a distinct and limited (possibly even rare) subset of cells that share the properties of normal “stem cells”, in that they extensively proliferate and efficiently give rise both to additional solid tumor stem cells (self-renewal) and to the majority of tumor cells of a solid tumor that lack tumorigenic potential. Indeed, mutations within a long-lived stem cell population may initiate the formation of cancer stem cells that underlie the growth and maintenance of tumors and whose presence contributes to the failure of current therapeutic approaches.
The stem cell nature of cancer was first revealed in the blood cancer, acute myeloid leukemia (AML) (Lapidot et al., 1994, Nature 367:645-8). More recently it has been demonstrated that malignant human breast tumors similarly harbor a small, distinct population of cancer stem cells enriched for the ability to form tumors in immunodeficient mice. An ESA+, CD44+, CD24−/low, Lin-cell population was found to be 50-fold enriched for tumorigenic cells compared to unfractionated tumor cells (Al-Hajj et al., 2003, PNAS 100:3983-8). The ability to prospectively isolate the tumorigenic cancer cells has permitted investigation of critical biological pathways that underlie tumorigenicity in these cells, and thus promises the development of better diagnostic assays and therapeutics for cancer patients. It is toward this purpose that this invention is directed.
Normal stem cells and cancer stem cells share the ability to proliferate and self-renew, thus it is not surprising that a number of genes that regulate normal stem cell development contribute to tumorigenesis (reviewed in Reya et al., 2001, Nature 414:105-111 and Taipale & Beachy, 2001, Nature 411:349-354). The present invention identifies Notch receptor, for example, Notch1, as a marker of cancer stem cells, implicating the Notch signaling pathway in the maintenance of cancer stem cells and as a target for treating cancer via the elimination of these tumorigenic cells.
The Notch signaling pathway is one of several critical regulators of embryonic pattern formation, post-embryonic tissue maintenance, and stem cell biology. More specifically, Notch signaling is involved in the process of lateral inhibition between adjacent cell fates and plays an important role in cell fate determination during asymmetric cell divisions. Unregulated Notch signaling is associated with numerous human cancers where it can alter the developmental fate of tumor cells to maintain them in an undifferentiated and proliferative state (Brennan and Brown, 2003, Breast Cancer Res. 5:69). Thus carcinogenesis can proceed by usurping homeostatic mechanisms controlling normal development and tissue repair by stem cell populations (Beachy et al., 2004, Nature 432:324).
The Notch receptor was first identified in Drosophila mutants with haploinsufficiency resulting in notches at the wing margin, whereas loss-of-function produces an embryonic lethal “neurogenic” phenotype where cells of the epidermis switch fate to neural tissue (Moohr, 1919, Genet. 4:252; Poulson, 1937, PNAS 23:133; Poulson, 1940, J. Exp. Zool. 83:271). The Notch receptor is a single-pass transmembrane receptor containing numerous tandem epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like repeats and three cysteine-rich Notch/LIN-12 repeats (LNRs) within a large extracellular domain (Wharton et al., 1985, Cell 43:567; Kidd et al., 1986, Mol. Cell Biol. 6:3094; reviewed in Artavanis et al., 1999, Science 284:770). The LNRs and an additional C-terminal tail of approximately 103 amino acids of the extracellular domain are referred to herein as the “membrane proximal region”. This region is also known as, and referred to as the Notch negative regulatory region (NRR).
Mammalian Notch receptors undergo cleavage to both form the mature receptor and following ligand binding to activate downstream signaling. A furin-like protease cleaves the Notch receptor precursors during maturation to generate juxtamembrane heterodimers that comprise a non-covalently associated extracellular subunit and a transmembrane subunit held together in an auto-inhibitory state. Ligand binding relieves this inhibition and induces cleavage of the Notch receptor by an ADAM-type metalloprotease and gamma-secretase, the latter of which releases the intracellular domain (ICD) into the cytoplasm, allowing it to translocate into the nucleus to activate gene transcription. Cleavage by ADAM occurs within the non-ligand binding cleavage domain within the juxtamembrane negative regulatory region (NRR) (See FIG. 1A). In the Notch1 receptor this region encompasses from about amino acid 1427 to about amino acid 1732.
Four mammalian Notch proteins have been identified (Notch1, Notch2, Notch3, and Notch4), and mutations in these receptors invariably result in developmental abnormalities and human pathologies including several cancers as described in detail below (Gridley, 1997, Mol. Cell Neurosci. 9:103; Joutel & Tournier-Lasserve, 1998, Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 9:619-25).
The Notch receptor is activated by single-pass transmembrane ligands of the Delta, Serrated, Lag-2 (DSL) family. There are five known Notch ligands in mammals: Delta-like 1 (DLL1), Delta-like 3 (DLL3), Delta-like 4 (DLL4), Jagged 1 and Jagged 2 characterized by a DSL domain and tandem EGF-like repeats within the extracellular domain. The extracellular domain of the Notch receptor interacts with that of its ligands, typically on adjacent cells, resulting in two proteolytic cleavages of Notch; one extracellular cleavage mediated by an ADAM (A Disintegrin And Metallopeptidase) protease and one cleavage within the transmembrane domain mediated by gamma secretase. This latter cleavage generates the Notch intracellular domain (ICD), which then enters the nucleus where it activates the CBF1, Suppressor of Hairless [Su(H)], Lag-2 (CSL) family of transcription factors as the major downstream effectors to increase transcription of nuclear basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors of the Hairy and Enhancer of Split [E(spl)] family (Artavanis et al., 1999, Science 284:770; Brennan and Brown, 2003, Breast Cancer Res. 5:69; Iso et al., 2003, Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 23:543). Alternative intracellular pathways involving the cytoplasmic protein Deltex identified in Drosophila may also exist in mammals (Martinez et al., 2002, Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 12:524-33), and this Deltex-dependent pathway may act to suppress expression of Wnt target genes (Brennan et al., 1999, Curr. Biol. 9:707-710; Lawrence et al., 2001, Curr. Biol. 11:375-85).
Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are the best understood stem cells in the body, and Notch signaling is implicated both in their normal maintenance as well as in leukemic transformation (Kopper & Hajdu, 2004, Pathol. Oncol. Res. 10:69-73). HSCs are a rare population of cells that reside in a stromal niche within the adult bone marrow. These cells are characterized both by a unique gene expression profile as well as an ability to continuously give rise to more differentiated progenitor cells to reconstitute the entire hematopoietic system. Constitutive activation of Notch1 signaling in HSCs and progenitor cells establishes immortalized cell lines that generate both lymphoid and myeloid cells in vitro and in long-term reconstitution assays (Varnum-Finney et al., 2000, Nat. Med. 6:1278-81), and the presence of Jagged1 increases engraftment of human bone marrow cell populations enriched for HSCs (Karanu et al., 2000, J. Exp. Med. 192:1365-72). More recently, Notch signaling has been demonstrated in HSCs in vivo and shown to be involved in inhibiting HSC differentiation. Furthermore, Notch signaling appears to be required for Wnt-mediated HSC self-renewal (Duncan et al., 2005, Nat. Immunol. 6:314).
The Notch signaling pathway also plays a central role in the maintenance of neural stem cells and is implicated both in their normal maintenance as well as in brain cancers (Kopper & Hajdu, 2004, Pathol. Oncol. Res. 10:69-73; Purow et al., 2005, Cancer Res. 65:2353-63; Hallahan et al., 2004, Cancer Res. 64:7794-800). Neural stem cells give rise to all neuronal and glial cells in the mammalian nervous system during development, and more recently have been identified in the adult brain (Gage, 2000, Science 287:1433-8). Mice deficient for Notch1; the Notch target genes Hes1, 3, and 5; and a regulator of Notch signaling presenilin1 (PS1) show decreased numbers of embryonic neural stem cells. Furthermore, adult neural stem cells are reduced in the brains of PS1 heterozygote mice (Nakamura et al., 2000, J. Neurosci. 20:283-93; Hitoshi et al., 2002, Genes Dev. 16:846-58). The reduction in neural stem cells appears to result from their premature differentiation into neurons (Hatakeyama et al., 2004, Dev. 131:5539-50) suggesting that Notch signaling regulates neural stem cell differentiation and self-renewal.
Aberrant Notch signaling is implicated in a number of human cancers. The Notch1 gene in humans was first identified in a subset of T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemias as a translocated locus resulting in activation of the Notch pathway (Ellisen et al., 1991, Cell 66:649-61). Constitutive activation of Notch1 signaling in T-cells in mouse models similarly generates T-cell lymphomas suggesting a causative role (Robey et al., 1996, Cell 87:483-92; Pear et al., 1996, J. Exp. Med. 183:2283-91; Yan et al., 2001, Blood 98:3793-9; Bellavia et al., 2000, EMBO J. 19:3337-48). Recently Notch1 point mutations, insertions, and deletions producing aberrant Notch1 signaling have been found to be frequently present in both childhood and adult T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma (Pear & Aster, 2004, Curr. Opin. Hematol. 11:416-33).
The frequent insertion of the mouse mammary tumor virus into both the Notch1 and Notch4 locus in mammary tumors and the resulting activated Notch protein fragments first implicated Notch signaling in breast cancer (Gallahan & Callahan, 1987, J. Virol. 61:66-74; Brennan & Brown, 2003, Breast Cancer Res. 5:69; Politi et al., 2004, Semin. Cancer Biol. 14:341-7). Further studies in transgenic mice have confirmed a role for Notch in ductal branching during normal mammary gland development, and a constitutively active form of Notch4 in mammary epithelial cells inhibits epithelial differentiation and results in tumorigenesis (Jhappan et al., 1992, Genes & Dev. 6:345-5; Gallahan et al., 1996, Cancer Res. 56:1775-85; Smith et al., 1995, Cell Growth Differ. 6:563-77; Soriano et al., 2000, Int. J. Cancer 86:652-9; Uyttendaele et al., 1998, Dev. Biol. 196:204-17; Politi et al., 2004, Semin. Cancer Biol. 14:341-7). Currently the evidence for a role for Notch in human breast cancer is limited to the expression of Notch receptors in breast carcinomas and their correlation with clinical outcome (Weijzen et al., 2002, Nat. Med. 8:979-86; Parr et al., 2004, Int. J. Mol. Med. 14:779-86). Furthermore, overexpression of the Notch pathway has been observed in cervical cancers (Zagouras et al., 1995, PNAS 92:6414-8), renal cell carcinomas (Rae et al., 2000, Int. J. Cancer 88:726-32), head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (Leethanakul et al., 2000, Oncogene 19:3220-4), endometrial cancers (Suzuki et al., 2000, Int. J. Oncol. 17:1131-9), and neuroblastomas (van Limpt et al., 2000, Med. Pediatr. Oncol. 35:554-8) suggestive of a potential role for Notch in the development of a number of neoplasms. Interestingly, Notch signaling might play a role in the maintenance of the undifferentiated state of Apc-mutant neoplastic cells of the colon (van Es & Clevers, 2005, Trends in Mol. Med. 11:496-502).
The Notch pathway is also involved in multiple aspects of vascular development including proliferation, migration, smooth muscle differentiation, angiogenesis and arterial-venous differentiation (Iso et al., 2003, Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 23:543). For example, homozygous null mutations in Notch1/4 and Jagged1 as well as heterozygous loss of DLL4 result in severe though variable defects in arterial development and yolk sac vascularization. Furthermore, DLL1-deficient and Notch-2-hypomorphic mice embryos show hemorrhage that likely results from poor development of vascular structures (Gale et al., 2004, PNAS, 101:15949-54; Krebs et al., 2000, Genes Dev. 14:1343-52; Xue et al., 1999, Hum. Mel Genet. 8:723-30; Hrabe de Angelis et al., 1997, Nature 386:717-21; McCright et al., 2001, Dev. 128:491-502). In human, mutations in Jagged1 are associated with Alagille syndrome, a developmental disorder that includes vascular defects, and mutations in Notch3 are responsible for an inherited vascular dementia (Cadasil) in which vessel homeostasis is defective (Joutel et al., 1996, Nature 383:707-10).
The identification of Notch1, Notch4, DLL1 and DLL4 as genes expressed in cancer stem cells compared to normal breast epithelium suggests that targeting the Notch pathway can help eliminate not only the majority of nontumorigenic cancer cells, but the tumorigenic cells responsible for the formation and reoccurrence of solid tumors. Furthermore, because of the prominent role of angiogenesis in tumor formation and maintenance, targeting the Notch pathway can also effectively inhibit angiogenesis, starving a cancer of nutrients and contributing to its elimination.
Anti-Notch antibodies and their possible use as anti-cancer therapeutics have been reported. See, e.g., U.S. Patent Application Publication Nos. 2008/0131434 and 2009/0081238, each of which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. See also International Publication Nos. WO 2008/057144, WO 2008/076960, and WO 2008/50525.